15: Gender Differences
The author states that "one might argue that gender is a determinant of personality" - but he approaches the topic with hesitance. The notion of there being a significant difference between the structure and function of the brains of males and females is highly politicized and based on specious evidence.
While there are some factors that are objective and demonstrable, the topic of gender differences has become so thoroughly corrupted that it is difficult to separate the valid research from that which is unsound.
The objective difference between genders arises largely from the difference in the biology of males and females, particularly as it relates to reproductive activities. Differences in reproductive organs lead to differences in neural activity. Whether there are any additional differences, or whether they affect more than merely reproductive activities (fertilization, incubation, and neonatal caregiving) is subject to much conjecture.
A significant gender difference is in hormonal levels, chiefly estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone, the presence of which does influence brain activity - and it is theorized that they have an influence of cognitive and affective functions outside of reproduction by virtue of the way in which they impact the dopaminergic system.
One study tested the brain activity of women during various stages of their menstrual cycle. These experiments revealed that during the follicular phase (4-8 days after the beginning of menstruation) and luteal phase (6-10 days prior to menstruation), the balance of estrogen and progesterone are influenced, such that the activities in the female brain deviate significantly from the norm: stimuli that suggest action leads to a reward result in atypically increased activity in the amygdalo-hippocampal region and lower activity in the ventral striatum (where it is normally evident in both females and males.
The author implies that many studies fail to consider this difference, as a question of "at what stage of your menstrual cycle are you today?" are considered to be personal and researchers refrain from asking, even though it may have a significant bearing on the outcome of their studies.
Another study tested stress reactions, finding that decisions pertaining to the "fight or flight" reaction are processed in the left orbitofrontal cortex (logical center) of men, but in the limbic system (emotional center) of women. This is of keen interest to marketers who use fear or stress to sell products such as insurance or tires: they should be aware that the two genders might respond differently to messages that suggest their products mitigate the danger posed by a given threat.
In terms of emotions, emotional response must be measured against the backdrop of electronic activity in the brain - the mood of the subject, which is strongly influenced by their hormonal state. And because there are significant differences in the hormone levels of females as opposed to males, there can be said to be differences between the genders in terms of their emotional state and emotional reactions - to which researchers should be attuned and marketers should be aware.
The Male/Female Brain
In terms of gender differences, the author defers to Louann Brizendine, a neurobiologist who wrote separate books on the female brain and the male brain (2007 and 2010), which the author regards as "easy reads" but nonetheless significant in considering not only gender differences, but the difference of time (specifically age and life stages).
He notes that the books have drawn some fire from critics and readers, but given the political sentiments surrounding any issue involving gender, this is to be expected. He found little substance in reviews that would lead him to think that there were any inherent problems with Brizendine's theories - just a negative reaction to what was uncovered, insofar as it does not support existing political agendas and common prejudices.
It is entirely accurate to assert that men and women are different in a biological sense. The chromosomal difference, X and Y, means that every cell of their bodies is different. The difference in their bodies is undeniable, whey then should we countenance the notion that there is no difference in the male and female brain?
The small but significant differences in chromosomes lead to other differences that are evident even in prenatal development. Their brains, while structurally similar, are affected by different hormones, which evidence themselves in behavioral differences. Even the patterns of electrical activity are different in response to identical stimuli, and different circuits are used in perception as well as in action.
Many behavioral tendencies that are dismissed as stereotypes have entirely objective biological foundations. Men have 250% as much brain space devoted to sexual drive, larger sections of the brain devoted to muscular action and aggression (particularly protective aggression).
Biology does not tell the whole story: the brain's architecture, which is not set in stone at birth or the end of childhood, varies over life based on experience and out interpretation of it. This means that the cultural differences between men and women, the way they are treated by and interact with others in a society that prescribes different roles for men and women, affect their way of thinking.
(EN: The author seems to come unraveled here, and the chapter ends with a ragged string of examples: men are more interested in competition, women in maintaining a cooperation; men wish to achieve, women to maintain the status quo; men to be sexually promiscuous, women to hold onto a mate; etc.)