6 - Truth
Truth is one of the most basic concepts of logic, and one whose definition is often questioned. For the purposes of this book, the author defers to Aristotle's definition: to declare something to be what it actually is. The basic idea is that truth corresponds to reality, to the degree we are capable of perceiving it.
Relativism
Something need not be known, or even be knowable, in order to be true. We do not know if a person ate an even or odd number of olives during their life, or even our own, but it was either even or odd - one would be true and the other false. There are also things that are accepted as true until they are proven to be false - the earth is flat, and all things are made of four elements.
That is to say that the objective truth may often be outside of our perception - and as such we are often left to deal with the relative truth, which is "the truth" as best we are able to perceive it. It does not make truth invalid or useless, but acknowledges an insurmountable obstacle, and the boundaries in which we must operate.
In this way, it is suggested that our relative perception of the truth may not be the objective truth, but neither does it mean that our perception is entirely false.
Types Of Truth
Any statement (as opposed to question or command) presents information that is purported to be true. The author considers three basic types of statement:
- Analytic- such as "every triangle has three sides"
- Empirical- such as "some apples are green"
- Values - such as "We should not torture children"
Analytic truths present all the information that is needed to consider the veracity of the statement, whereas empirical ones require us to look to outside sources for verification. Science, in particular, deals mainly with finding the proof for empirical truths.
Both analytic and empirical statements may also be falsehoods: "a pentagon has but three sides" and "all birds can fly"
A value statement is in the realm of morality - it proposes something is good or bad, right or wrong. Value statements are subject to argument, and cannot be demonstrated to be true.
Analyzing Questions and Issues
This consideration of statement types may seem tedious, but it is important to distinguish among them in critical thinking. The types of statement require a different approach, different sorts of evidence and techniques of argument, to evaluate whether they should be accepted or rejected.
A simple statement of fact implies a question has been answered. "XYZ is the largest bank in the world" leads us to beg the question of largeness (number of customers, revenue, funds on deposit, number of branches, etc.) in a manner that can then be verified by gathering and analyzing information
A question of values requires a great deal more consideration. "Should there be a minimum wage" leads us to question the impact to an economy of their being, or lacking, such a thing,. We can examine the consequences of having one or not, and it can be considered from various perspectives (welfare of the workers, the impact on unemployment, the impact on cost of goods, etc.). In a situation where there is no real-world evidence for a proposal, we have to extrapolate and be speculative.
Of particular importance is that these examples have led us to break down the initial question into more basic questions, which look into meaning, facts, and values - all of which must be considered systematically to ensure we have been adequately thorough in analyzing complicated issues.