1 - Introduction
Globalization is a significant force that is changing the way we work and live. First of all, it is increasing the frequency, magnitude, and complexity of the problems we face in our daily lives. Good thinking is necessary to solve these problems. Knowledge and information have also become perishable - the facts of today will change tomorrow - but the skills used to assess the facts and make decisions based upon them have not changed.
Thinking skills are categorized into critical and creative thinking. Critical thinking is the application to logic, systematically, to the information at hand. Creative thinking seeks for broader opportunities, and considers which critical approach to follow in evaluating them. To think critically without thinking creatively is to be myopic, and assumes that the data and methodology are fixed and comprehensive. To think creatively without thinking critically is unmethodical and sloppy. You must be both creative and critical to make sound decisions.
The author provides a list of skills that a thinker should have:
- Understand the logical connections between ideas
- State ideas succinctly and precisely
- Identify, construct, and evaluate arguments
- Consider the "pro" and "con" of a decision
- Detect inconsistencies and common mistakes in reasoning
- Analyze problems systematically
- Identify the relevance (or irrelevance) and relative importance of factors
- Justify one's own beliefs and values
- Evaluate one's own thinking skills
It should be obvious that thinking is domain-general, rather than the province of a given academic subject or field of industry, applicable to our private as well as professional lives.
Some Misconceptions about Critical Thinking
"Critical" thinking is often confused with "criticism," or the process of constantly finding fault in a way that is not constructive. Critical thinking seeks to overcome poor thinking and remedy insufficient thinking, but is otherwise not a destructive force.
- Critical think rejects bad ideas, not offhand but for very specific reasons. Its intent is to lead to a better understanding and a better decision. It has no social agenda.
- Neither does critical thinking require constant argumentation - argument for the sake of argument. It recognizes what is right, in which case there is no cause for disagreement.
- A critical thinker can be relentless, but this is a psychological choice. He can just as easily choose to ignore mistakes or disregard them as unimportant.
A common objection to thinking is that it is not practical because people in real life do not listen to reason, but act on the basis of their emotions or go along with social pressures. It may be true that people are not perfectly rational, but neither are they completely irrational - and even when someone is choosing to be irrational, being more irrational is not going to snap them out of it. The "calm voice of reason" is a more effective countermeasure.
Neither is critical thinking cold and emotionless. A critical thinker recognizes emotions as a motive and justification, and may choose to prioritize or dismiss them. Seeking to achieve a positive emotional state, trading off more objective functional benefits, is a valid option.
Improving Our Thinking
Obviously, anyone can think critically to some extent. it is the nature of humanity to think, rather than rely on instincts, for our very survival. That is not to say thinking is an innate ability that cannot be improved. It is like any other skill, to which we show some "natural" talent, and upon which we can purposefully improve.
Psychology research shows us that people make a lot of mistakes in their reasoning, but this is based on their previous experience: we do not learn to think properly. Or worse, we tend to fall into patterns of thought that have been successful in previous situations, but which are a poor match for the needs of the present one. Unclear thinking is the case of "intuitions" and "gut feelings" where we recognize something is wrong but don't know exactly what it is, or how we might make a deliberate process of understanding and evaluating the situation. In such instances, greater knowledge and skills in the area of critical thinking can overcome the problem - or more aptly, it provides the tools to better understand the problem and overcome it through thinking.
The author considers good critical thinking to be derivative of three conditions: knowledge of theory, deliberate practice, and having the right attitude. A bit more on each follows.
Theory
The knowledge required for critical thinking can be divided into five main areas, to be considered at greater length later. For now:
- Meaning analysis - Ensuring that you clearly understand the meaning and taking a systematic approach to fully exploring the ideas
- Logic - Considering the way that facts are linked to one another to arrive at an assessment of their significance
- Scientific Method - Sound methods are used to test a theory, evaluate cause and effects, and understand the probability of outcomes
- Values-Based - Rational decision making is done with an eye toward the outcomes and selecting the option that best serves the preferred values
- Valid and Objective. Fallacies must be avoided and biases must be considered to minimize any negative influence of the outcome
Essentially, theory applies to the techniques that must be mastered and then put into practice. Some theories will seem dry and abstract, but are at the same time powerful and relevant.
Practice
Knowing what to do is of little value if we do not act upon that knowledge, and what we find in terms of acquiring skills is that it takes repetition, sometimes years of intensive and structured practice to reach a high level to master the application of a given skill. Consider that you can read and understand the basic theory of playing a violin in less than an hour, but it requires of practice to be anything more than annoying, and years of dedication to become a virtuoso.
The author returns briefly to the notion of innate ability and skills development. Certain individuals are born with an unnatural proclivity - but they are extremely rare, and it is far more often that people develop talent and precision with many years of practice.
As such, critical thinking should be a natural habit, a way of life, rather than something that is done occasionally. It need nto be onerous, and it is something that can be done in our daily life as we come across ideas. The author suggests considering four kinds of questions:
- What does it mean? - Consider whether the concepts clear or could be more precise, as well as the relation to other things.
- What are the supporting reasons and objections? Evaluate the reasons and see both sides of the issue.
- Why is this important or relevant? Consider the consequences and the way in which it affects people, particularly things that are different or overlooked.
- What else might be done? Consider whether the proposed action is the only means to achieve the desired outcome, and what other precipitating effects might be.
Asking each of these questions is a practice in critical thinking that will improve your skills, and also help to avoid some of the common problems - such as not being in the habit of thinking, or being negative and critical - you will tend more often see the logic that makes things right than identify where they are wrong. But more to the point, you will become a more fluent, systematic, sophisticated, and creative thinker by virtue of practicing those skills.
Attitude
The author suggests a number of attitudes that are most conducive to effective thinking:
- Independence. To accept what is given, whether bowing to authority, going along with wants popular, or simply avoiding the effort, is to abdicate from thinking for yourself.
- Openness. To be closed-minded, unwilling to consider arguments, is also to abdicate from thinking. Humility is necessary to find the truth, and helps you identify weaknesses.
- Impartiality. While thinking does not require giving up emotions, it also requires recognizing them and their biasing factors.
- Patience. A good thinker does not jump to conclusion, but invests the time to seek information, consider various approaches, and do a systematic analysis.
In essence, thinking is a lifestyle choice, more akin to a culture or an attitude that a person adopts permanently, not just on an as-needed basis.
Critical thinking as an investment
The idea that we should think critically as often as possible seems onerous and boring. However, it is necessary to do so in order to enjoy success. The mistakes and inefficiencies that prevent people from achieving greatness, or even in some instances keeps them short even of mediocrity, are avoidable if critical thinking is applied.
In all of life, not just commercial endeavors, you ought to be able to understand yourself, to explain why you're doing the things you are. In general, if you cannot identify the reason for doing something, you shouldn't do it - any positive outcome would be purely accidental, and it's more likely to be damaging or at least inefficient.
The author quotes celebrity investor Warren Buffet, who shares this perspective. He has a reason for every stock he purchases. "If you can answer that question [why you are buying or selling something], and you do it a few times, you'll make a lot of money."
Not everyone is targeted on making money, but we all seek to achieve success in some way - and critical thinking is key to doing so.