10 - Leadership and Appreciative Inquiry
Until the last fifty years or so, psychology had largely concerned itself with the abnormal, dealing with behavior that was harmful to an individual or society. With very few exceptions, the field was about treating disease, not promoting good health. This pattern is not unique: medicine concerned itself with injury and illness rather than promoting good health, and management had concerned itself with dealing with problems rather than promoting organizational health.
Psychology in the Workplace
The author then mentions "positive psychology," a legitimate field of study that considers methods of promoting psychological health. (EN: some distinction must be made between positive psychology and "popular psychology," the latter of which is not legitimate.)
Positive psychology is focused on promoting health rather than dealing with illness, promoting a positive frame of mind that makes a normal person more capable. It generally seeks to promote the health and productivity of the individual person for their own benefit. But making people more productive and capable is also of great interest to the organizations that employ them.
In this sense, all leaders are practicing psychology, whether they understand it or not. Managing workers' performance is less about the external factors that enable a person to perform a task than it is about the internal factors that motivate them to perform, and to perform well. Good leaders have strong "people skills," which is simply another way of stating that they are effective in applied psychology.
However, not all uses of psychology are particularly positive or healthy. Just as with drugs, there are some medicines that promote health and others that have short-term effects at the cost of doing long-term damage. In many instances,. psychology has been used manipulatively, destructively, and unethically.
The author suggests that "common sense tells us" that happy workers are productive workers, various academic studies confirm this, and the financial performance of firms is highly correlated to employee satisfaction. So it would seem to be obvious that it is in the best interest of companies to consider the psychological health of their employees - not only by desisting from harmful practices, but by adopting practices that promote better health.
(EN: The problem is that the world is not ruled by common sense, and people in positions of power are notoriously impervious to facts and evidence. Because of the recession that has been going on for quite some time, many workers feel trapped in unfulfilling jobs and toxic workplaces. It is only when the economy is booming and there is a labor shortage that firms are compelled by necessity to consider whether they are considered "a good place to work" and will endeavor to cater to employees to retain them. That has not yet happened.)
The Theory of Appreciative inquiry
The author mentions the notion of "appreciative inquiry" (AI), which she defines as the practice of focusing on positives rather than dwelling on negatives. This is a departure from the "problem solving" mode of management, in which it is assumed that management's task is primarily to deal with problems rather than seek methods of improvement.
The traditional approach to management assumes that workers are lazy and must be threatened or tricked into working; the AI approach assumes that workers find fulfillment in their jobs and want to be productive, but that organizations place many obstacles in the way of their doing so. It is a perspective that encourages managers to focus on what's working instead of what's broken, and to consider what can be done to make things work better than they presently do.
The AI approach consist of two questions.
- How do things work?
- How could they work better?
By asking "how can things work better?" the AI approach treats workers as partners in finding better solutions. The workers are not in a position to constantly fear punishment for doing things wrong, but in the position to be hopeful for reward for identifying ways to improve. This also leads to a more collaborative spirit. In the problem mindset, people seek to avoid attention for fear of being blamed for causing the problem. In the AI mindset people are eager to become involved in finding improvements.
The problem-solving approach also encourages organizational inertia. It assumes that everything will continue to go well and that management need only concern itself when a problem arises. Companies that practice the AI approach are more aware of opportunities for improvement, and because they are being attentive they can detect changes in external factors before they result in a problem.
Appreciative Inquiry in Action
The author suggests AI as "a tool and a way of thinking," and makes various general remarks about how it may be instituted as an organizational practice or used by an individual practitioner. Particularly when the organization is entrenched in a toxic culture, an individual who uses the AI approach can "break the cycle of negativity" and use their positive results to lead an organizational change.
AI can be applied by re-framing problems as opportunities: rather than declaring something to be "broken" and seeking a repair, instead ask the question of why things are the way they are and seek opportunities for improvement. (EN: I've seen this done very badly - a manager who merely plays word-games comes across as disingenuous and ends up alienating people and causing mistrust, so it's not at all this simple.)
There's mention of the psychology of framing and priming again. When a situation is declared to be a problem, people begin with a negative and fearful mindset; when it is considered as an opportunity, people have a more positive and engaged mindset and are less likely to make quick and irrational decisions out of panic. From the perspective of the organization, the same goals are pursued regardless of whether it is framed as an opportunity or a problem - it's just that priming employees to take a positive approach leads them to be less fearful, more thoughtful, and more engaged.
Another psychological factor is mentioned: visualization. It's been shown in various areas (particularly in athletic performance) that visualizing a positive outcome is more effective in improving performance. A problem/crisis leads to a quick fix, and usually disappointment when the desired results are not achieved. A vision leads to broader thinking about how to achieve an improvement, the consideration of various options, and the tendency to try something different when the best idea failed.
There follows a testimonial about a consultant working with a group of managers, rephrasing problems as opportunities. In essence, the substance remained the same, the pressures of time and cost remained the same, but the attitude toward the workers changed from treating them as mindless drones to capable contributors. Admittedly, some managers fell back to their existing ways of thinking - making all the decisions and issuing orders to be followed - but their performance was significantly worse than those who adopted the AU approach.
An aside: focusing only on the negative may be detrimental. Consider the example of a firm that has 94% of customers reporting being happy. Focusing on the complaints of the 6% may lead the firm to make changes that would positively impact them, but negatively impact an even larger number of happy customers. In that sense, the AI approach of understanding how things are presently working can help avoid fixing what isn't broken, or doing damage to a happy majority to placate the unhappy few.
Appreciative Inquiry Develops Leadership
The traditional view of leadership, with orders flowing from the top down through a strict hierarchy, is clearly no longer appropriate to the modern workplace. Organizations that operate in this manner are stodgy and slow, leaders are out of touch with the front lines, and the expertise of workers is not tapped.
While this book is primarily focused on improving the workplace for the employees, it stands to mention that AI also helps develop leaders. It causes them to be more attentive, to explore multiple approaches to achieving goals, and to better engage the expertise of their subordinates.
By engaging employees in the planning process, AI also helps develop leadership skills on the lower levels of the organization, preparing them to transition into leadership positions. This solves the common problems that occur when a person in a "worker" role is promoted and struggles to make the transition to a leadership position.
It also facilitates decision-making at the appropriate level. When an employee is authorized and encouraged to make a decision pertaining to his work, the leader is not encumbered and may focus on matters that are germane to his own level of the organization.